The Plant Studies Delegation visited China under the auspices of the Committee on Scholarly Exchanges with the People's Republic of China as guests of the China Association of Agriculture. The members of the U.S. team, with their areas of special interest, are as follows: Sterling Wortman, Rockefeller Foundation: Party chairman; plant breeding methodology, crop physiology, and international cooperation John L. Creech, National Arboretum, Washington, D.C.; Vice chairman; plant introduction, germ plasm exchanges, and distribution of woody species Alexander P. DeAngelis, National Academy' of Sciences, Washington, D.C.: Group secretary; Chinese folk literature Richard L. Bernard, U.S. Regional Soybean Laboratory', Urbana, Illinois; Soybean breeding, production, germ plasm including wild relatives Norman E. Borlaug, International Research Center for Improvement of Maize and Wheat (CIMMYT), Mexico City: Cereal breeding, germ plasm collection, evaluation, and exchange Nyle C. Brady, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Banos, Philippines: Rice breeding, plant nutrition, soils, and international cooperation Glenn W. Burton, Coastal Plains Experimental Station, Tifton, Georgia: Breeding, genetics, and management of millets, turf grasses, and forages Jack R. Harlan, Department of Agrcnomy, University of Illinois, Urbana: Domestication of cereals, crop evolution, genetic resources, and sorghum. Arthur Kellman, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison: Plant pathology, bacterial diseases of plants, and disease resistance Philip A. Kuhn, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois: Chinese history Henry A. Munger, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York: Vegetable breeding and production, nutritive value of vegetables G. F. Sprague, Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois, Urbana: Genetics, plant breeding methodology, breeding and production of corn A much more detailed report of observations of the Plant Studies Delegation will be published by the National Academy of Sciences.
The current ability of the Chinese people to produce enough food for over 800 million people on 11 percent of their total available land is an impressive accomplishment. This has been achieved, in large part, through the expansion and intensification of traditional practices. Water control practice- irrigation, drainage, and land leveling- now include nearly 40 percent of the cultivated area. The intensity of cropping has been greatly increased. China has probably the world's most efficient system for the utilization of human and animal wastes and of crop residues. The development of "backyard" fertilizer plants and the utilization of hybrid corn and kaoliang (sorghum) are new elements contributiion
Relatively limited data are available either for current agricultural production in the People's Republic of China or for changes in agricultural practices that have developed since the Communist Revolution. The following generalizations are based on observations made by the Plant Studies Delegation on their recent visit, 26 August to 23 September 1974, and on conversations with the many scientists contacted. This trip involved a north-south transect from Canton to Kirin and an east-west transect from Sian to Shanghai (Fig. 1). In all, some 20 research institutes, colleges, or universities and seven communes were visited. Although extensive travel was involved, our view of China remains a very restricted base from which to generalize about agriculture and agricultural developments. It is believed, however, that the observations presented are broadly correct.
The land mass of China is approximately 970 million hectares, exceeding that of the United States (excluding Hawaii and Alaska) by approximately 25 percent. The area of cultivated land in the United States is roughly a third greater than that of China, but area alone provides an inadequate basis for comparison. In the United States a portion of cultivated land remains fallow each year whereas China makes extensive use of multiple cropping. This may involve either a succession of crops grown on the same tract during the growing season, or two or more crops grown in association during a given time period. Neither comparative crop yield nor total production figures are available and, even if they were, interpretation would be difficult because of the difference in production systems. China produces all of the major crops grown within the United States, but the relative importance of individual crops differs widely between the two countries. Furthermore, agriculture in the United States is largely conducted under rain-fed conditions whereas China makes extensive use of irrigation.
The main objectives of the Plant Studies Delegation were to establish or extend communications with Chinese scholars in the plant science field and, through such contacts, to facilitate the exchange of germ plasm between the two countries. A secondary but very real interest of the entire group was the current state of Chinese agriculture, the adequacy of their current food sup- ply, and the potential for further in- crease to meet an expanding population. 植物研究代表团的主要目标是与植物科学领域的中国学者建立或扩大交流，并通过这种联系促进两国之间的种质交流。整个群体的次要但非常切身的利益是中国农业的现状，其当前粮食供应的充足性以及进一步增加以满足不断增长的人口的潜力。
Efficiency of agricultural production may be measured either in terms of return per man-hour invested or return per unit area. In the United States the first measure has been adopted with a tremendous expansion of mechaniza- tion. The second alternative, followed by the Chinese, is labor-intensive with limited reliance on mechanization.
The main focus in Chinese agriculture, whether at the research or pro- duction level, centers on the eight points of Chairman Mao. These are to increase production by improving soil; Fig. 1. Map of eastern and central China. The delegation traveled from Canton to Kirin and from Sian to Shanghai. 550 fertilizer, seed, irrigation, close plant- ing, double cropping, plant protection, and tools. Research not directly and immediately related to improvements in one or more of these points has very low priority. Basic or long-term re- search receives very limited attention.
Agricultural Research in China The Chinese system for both research and extension has many unique features; projections of the adequacy of future food-population balances must recognize the characteristics of the current Chinese system. Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949 and more recently following the Cultural Revolution, there have been extensive changes in both the educational system and in the organizations responsible for research. The situation is still fluid and the pattern which may eventually emerge is still uncertain. There appears to be a determination to prevent the development of a scientific elitist class. To this end, all scientific societies within the field of agriculture have been disbanded, but all scientists belong to the Association of Agriculture. Furthermore, the individual research institutes have a high degree of independence (self- reliance and self-sufficiency). This has resulted in a decrease in the degree of coordination of activities among institutes concerned with similar agricultural problems. Current arrangements are unlikely to persist in their present form, so the following discussions of research and education may be valid only for a relatively short time. 中国的农业研究中国的研究和推广体系具有许多独特之处。对未来粮食人口平衡是否足够的预测必须认识到当前中国制度的特征。自从1949年中华人民共和国成立以来，以及最近在“文化大革命”之后，教育体系和负责研究的组织都发生了巨大变化。局势仍然动荡，最终可能出现的格局仍不确定。似乎有决心阻止科学精英阶层的发展。为此，农业领域内的所有科学学会均已解散，但所有科学家均属于农业协会。此外，各个研究机构具有高度的独立性（自力更生和自给自足）。这导致与类似农业问题有关的研究所之间的活动协调程度下降。当前的安排不可能以目前的形式持续下去，因此以下有关研究和教育的讨论可能仅在相对较短的时间内有效。
Agriculturally related basic plant science Iresearch is conducted under two separate agencies: Academia Sinica and the Bureau of Science and Technology under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. In earlier years much of this type of research vas done under the aegis of Academia Sinica. Since the Cultural Revolution there has been a great deal of decentralization. Some of the institutes remaining under Academia Sinica control were transferred to Shanghai, Nanking, or Tsinghai. Other activities became the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, which now has the major responsibilities for agricultural activities. Both agricultural research and education are the responsibility of the Bureau of Science and Technology of this ministry. Agricultural research is conducted by the provincial and municipal branches of the Academy of Science of Agriculture and Forestry and by the colleges of agriculture in cooperation with com- mune production brigades. At the pres- ent time, all agricultural colleges, with the exception of the Northwest Agricul- tural College at Sian, have been moved to rural areas and are being reestab- lished. All of these transfers and relo- cations appear to be designed to achieve a more intimate association of the scien- tist and the peasant to provide greater impetus to the solution of problems of rural development. At the same time this arrangement furthers the objective of limiting the development of a "white- collar" elitist class. Academia Sinica, the provincial and municipal institutes, and the entire educational system is still in a "struggle, criticize, reform" stage but with a growing degree of stability. 与农业有关的基础植物科学研究独立机构：中央研究院和科学技术局 隶属于农业和林业部。在早期，在中央研究院的主持下进行的这类研究。自从 文化大革命有很大的权力下放。一些由中央研究院控制的研究所 前往上海，南京或青海。其他活动成为农业和林业部的责任，现在 农业活动的主要责任。既农研究和教育是科学和技术局的责任 该部的技术。农业研究是由农业科学院省级和市级分院 与林业，农业院校以及公社生产大队合作。目前，除西安的西北农业学院外，所有农业学院都已搬迁到农村地区，并正在重新组建。所有这些转移和安置似乎都是为了使科学家和农民之间建立更紧密的联系，以更大的动力来解决农村发展问题。同时，这种安排进一步实现了限制“白领”精英阶层发展的目标。中国科学院，省级和市级研究机构以及整个教育体系仍处于“奋斗，批评，改革”阶段，但稳定程度不断提高。
The individual research institutes follow a common organizational pattern. Each is headed by a scientist employed by the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition each institute has a Revolutionary Committee composed of representatives from the Party, administrators, research workers, and peasants. Individual institutes may be highly specialized-for example, dealing only with fruits or soils -or may be more broadly concerned with agriculture of an area. In either event, specialized groups are concerned with improvement, production, and protection aspects. Each institute is associated with a number of commune production brigades of the area. From one-third to one-half of the scientific personnel of an institute may be on assignment to these production brigades, on a rotation basis, for periods of a year or more. In addition, each staff member is required to spend 30 days per year in some public works project. 各个研究机构遵循共同的组织模式。每个人都由农业部雇用的一名科学家领导。此外，每个研究所都有一个革命委员会，由来自党，行政管理人员，研究人员和农民的代表组成。各个研究所可能是高度专业化的，例如仅处理水果或土壤，或者可能更广泛地涉及某个地区的农业。在这两种情况下，专业团体都关心改进，生产和保护方面。每个研究所都与该地区的许多公社生产大队有关。研究所的科学人员的三分之一到二分之一可以轮流分配给这些生产大队一年或更长时间。此外，每位工作人员每年必须在某些公共工程项目中花费30天。
The research scientists fell into one of three groups with respect to academic training. One group, now near retirement age, received their advanced training abroad, frequently in the United States or Japan. The second group received their advanced training after 1949, usually in Russia. The third group, now constituting the bulk of the scientific staff, received all of their training within the People's Republic of China. This consisted largely of further training under supervision of staff members at one of the universities or agricultural colleges. There appeared to be no organized program for advanced study comparable to the graduate programs in many other countries. This younger group has had only limited exposure to agricultural developments in other areas of the world and has not participated in international cooperative activities such as the international rice or wheat evaluation trials. The current agricultural research in China is more nearly self-generated and self-contained than is true of any other area of the world.
The association between the institutes and the production bridges provides the mechanism for the extension of new varieties or production practices. To understand this relationship, it is necessary briefly to outline the organization of the communes. At the lowest organizational level are the production teams. A production team involves the households of one or more villages, whose lands have been pooled and are operated as a single farm unit. Each production team is governed by a revolutionary committee including representatives of households, cadres, and others, who collectively decide how assigned quotas shall be met, what crops will be planted, what management system will be used, and so forth. Income is dependent upon productivity achieved above the assigned quota; all production other than market barter is sold to a State Cooperative Agency. This system of operation encourages limitations on population growth since the area farmed is static. Unless productivity increases proportionately with an increase in manpower, per capita income must fall limitations on population growth since the area farmed is static. Unless productivity increases proportionately with an increase in manpower, per capita income must fall.
广州到麒麟 should be 广东到吉林 【 在 shaodian (有熊) 的大作中提到: 】 : Agriculture in China : By G. F. Sprague : Science 09 May 1975: : Vol. 188, Issue 4188, pp. 549-555 : DOI: 10.1126/science.188.4188.549 : https://science.sciencemag.org/content/188/4188/549 : The Plant Studies Delegation visited China under the auspices of the : Committee on Scholarly Exchanges with the People's Republic of China as : guests of the China Association of Agriculture. The members of the U.S. team : , with their areas of special interest, are as follows: : ...................
Agriculture in China
By G. F. Sprague
Science 09 May 1975:
Vol. 188, Issue 4188, pp. 549-555
DOI: 10.1126/science.188.4188.549
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/188/4188/549
The Plant Studies Delegation visited China under the auspices of the
Committee on Scholarly Exchanges with the People's Republic of China as
guests of the China Association of Agriculture. The members of the U.S. team, with their areas of special interest, are as follows:
Sterling Wortman, Rockefeller Foundation: Party chairman; plant breeding methodology, crop physiology, and international cooperation
John L. Creech, National Arboretum, Washington, D.C.; Vice chairman;
plant introduction, germ plasm exchanges, and distribution of woody species
Alexander P. DeAngelis, National Academy' of Sciences, Washington, D.C.: Group secretary; Chinese folk literature
Richard L. Bernard, U.S. Regional Soybean Laboratory', Urbana, Illinois; Soybean breeding, production, germ plasm including wild relatives
Norman E. Borlaug, International Research Center for Improvement of Maize and Wheat (CIMMYT), Mexico City: Cereal breeding, germ plasm collection,
evaluation, and exchange
Nyle C. Brady, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Banos,
Philippines: Rice breeding, plant nutrition, soils, and international
cooperation
Glenn W. Burton, Coastal Plains Experimental Station, Tifton, Georgia:
Breeding, genetics, and management of millets, turf grasses, and forages
Jack R. Harlan, Department of Agrcnomy, University of Illinois, Urbana:
Domestication of cereals, crop evolution, genetic resources, and sorghum.
Arthur Kellman, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin,
Madison: Plant pathology, bacterial diseases of plants, and disease
resistance
Philip A. Kuhn, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois: Chinese history
Henry A. Munger, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York: Vegetable breeding and production, nutritive value of vegetables
G. F. Sprague, Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois, Urbana:
Genetics, plant breeding methodology, breeding and production of corn A much more detailed report of observations of the Plant Studies Delegation will
be published by the National Academy of Sciences.
The current ability of the Chinese people to produce enough food for over
800 million people on 11 percent of their total available land is an
impressive accomplishment. This has been achieved, in large part, through
the expansion and intensification of traditional practices. Water control
practice- irrigation, drainage, and land leveling- now include nearly 40
percent of the cultivated area. The intensity of cropping has been greatly
increased. China has probably the world's most efficient system for the
utilization of human and animal wastes and of crop residues. The development of "backyard" fertilizer plants and the utilization of hybrid corn and
kaoliang (sorghum) are new elements contributiion
中国人民目前有能力生产足够的粮食8亿人（占其总可用土地的11％）
令人印象深刻的成就。这在很大程度上是通过传统习俗的扩大和强化。水控制
实践-灌溉，排水和土地平整-现在包括近40个耕地面积的百分比。耕种强度很大
增加。中国可能拥有世界上最高效的人类和动物废物以及农作物残渣的利用。发展历程“后院”化肥厂和杂交玉米的利用高粱是新元素的贡献
Relatively limited data are available
either for current agricultural production
in the People's Republic of China
or for changes in agricultural practices
that have developed since the Communist
Revolution. The following generalizations
are based on observations
made by the Plant Studies Delegation
on their recent visit, 26 August to 23
September 1974, and on conversations
with the many scientists contacted. This
trip involved a north-south transect
from Canton to Kirin and an east-west
transect from Sian to Shanghai (Fig.
1). In all, some 20 research institutes,
colleges, or universities and seven communes
were visited. Although extensive
travel was involved, our view of China
remains a very restricted base from
which to generalize about agriculture
and agricultural developments. It is believed,
however, that the observations
presented are broadly correct.
相对有限的数据可用要么用于当前的农业生产
在中华人民共和国或改变农业习惯自共产党以来发展起来的
革命。以下概括基于观察植物研究代表团所作
最近一次访问是在1974年8月26日至9月23日，以及对话
与许多科学家接触。这个这次旅行涉及南北横断面
从广州到麒麟和东西向从西安到上海的样带（图。
1）。总共约有20家研究机构，学院，大学或七个公社
被参观了。虽然广泛涉及旅行，我们对中国的看法
仍然是一个非常受限制的基础关于农业的概括
和农业发展。据信，然而，观察提出的大致正确。
The land mass of China is approximately
970 million hectares, exceeding
that of the United States (excluding Hawaii
and Alaska) by approximately 25
percent. The area of cultivated land in
the United States is roughly a third
greater than that of China, but area
alone provides an inadequate basis for
comparison. In the United States a
portion of cultivated land remains fallow
each year whereas China makes extensive
use of multiple cropping. This
may involve either a succession of
crops grown on the same tract during
the growing season, or two or more
crops grown in association during a
given time period. Neither comparative
crop yield nor total production
figures are available and, even if they
were, interpretation would be difficult
because of the difference in production
systems. China produces all of the major
crops grown within the United
States, but the relative importance of
individual crops differs widely between
the two countries. Furthermore, agriculture
in the United States is largely conducted under rain-fed conditions whereas China makes extensive use of irrigation.
中国的土地面积约为9.7亿公顷，超过
美国（不包括夏威夷）和阿拉斯加）约25
百分。耕地面积美国大约是三分之一
比中国大，但面积单靠提供不足的基础
比较。在美国一部分耕地仍然休耕
每年，而中国使用多次种植。这个
可能涉及一系列在同一时期种植在同一片土地上的农作物
生长季节，或两个或两个以上一年中联合生长的农作物
给定的时间段。两者都不可比作物产量或总产量
数字是可用的，即使他们是，解释会很困难
因为生产上的差异系统。中国生产所有主要
美国境内种植的农作物国家，但相对重要性
每种作物之间的差异很大两国。此外，农业
在美国，大部分情况下都是靠雨水灌溉，
而中国则大量使用灌溉。
The main objectives of the Plant Studies Delegation were to establish or
extend communications with Chinese scholars in the plant science field and, through such contacts, to facilitate the exchange of germ plasm between the two countries. A secondary but very real interest of the entire group was
the current state of Chinese agriculture, the adequacy of their current food sup- ply, and the potential for further in- crease to meet an expanding
population.
植物研究代表团的主要目标是与植物科学领域的中国学者建立或扩大交流，并通过这种联系促进两国之间的种质交流。整个群体的次要但非常切身的利益是中国农业的现状，其当前粮食供应的充足性以及进一步增加以满足不断增长的人口的潜力。
Efficiency of agricultural production may be measured either in terms of
return per man-hour invested or return per unit area. In the United States
the first measure has been adopted with a tremendous expansion of mechaniza- tion. The second alternative, followed by the Chinese, is labor-intensive
with limited reliance on mechanization.
农业生产效率可以用每工时的收益或单位面积的收益来衡量。在美国，采取了第一项措施，极大地扩大了机械化程度。中国人紧随其后的第二种选择是劳动密集型，对机械化的依赖有限。
The main focus in Chinese agriculture, whether at the research or pro-
duction level, centers on the eight points of Chairman Mao. These are to
increase production by improving soil; Fig. 1. Map of eastern and central
China. The delegation traveled from Canton to Kirin and from Sian to
Shanghai. 550 fertilizer, seed, irrigation, close plant- ing, double
cropping, plant protection, and tools. Research not directly and immediately related to improvements in one or more of these points has very low
priority. Basic or long-term re- search receives very limited attention.
无论是研究还是生产，中国农业的主要重点都集中在毛主席的八个观点上。这些都是通过改良土壤来增加产量；图1.中国东部和中部地区的地图。代表团从广州到麒麟，从西安到上海。 550肥料，种子，灌溉，密植，双季作物，植物保护和工具。与这些方面中的一个或多个方面的改善没有直接或直接关系的研究的优先级非常低。基本或长期研究受到的关注非常有限。
Agricultural Research in China The Chinese system for both research and
extension has many unique features; projections of the adequacy of future
food-population balances must recognize the characteristics of the current
Chinese system. Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949 and more recently following the Cultural Revolution, there have been
extensive changes in both the educational system and in the organizations
responsible for research. The situation is still fluid and the pattern which may eventually emerge is still uncertain. There appears to be a
determination to prevent the development of a scientific elitist class. To
this end, all scientific societies within the field of agriculture have been disbanded, but all scientists belong to the Association of Agriculture.
Furthermore, the individual research institutes have a high degree of
independence (self- reliance and self-sufficiency). This has resulted in a
decrease in the degree of coordination of activities among institutes
concerned with similar agricultural problems. Current arrangements are
unlikely to persist in their present form, so the following discussions of
research and education may be valid only for a relatively short time.
中国的农业研究中国的研究和推广体系具有许多独特之处。对未来粮食人口平衡是否足够的预测必须认识到当前中国制度的特征。自从1949年中华人民共和国成立以来，以及最近在“文化大革命”之后，教育体系和负责研究的组织都发生了巨大变化。局势仍然动荡，最终可能出现的格局仍不确定。似乎有决心阻止科学精英阶层的发展。为此，农业领域内的所有科学学会均已解散，但所有科学家均属于农业协会。此外，各个研究机构具有高度的独立性（自力更生和自给自足）。这导致与类似农业问题有关的研究所之间的活动协调程度下降。当前的安排不可能以目前的形式持续下去，因此以下有关研究和教育的讨论可能仅在相对较短的时间内有效。
Agriculturally related basic plant science Iresearch is conducted under two separate agencies: Academia Sinica and the Bureau of Science and Technology under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. In earlier years much of
this type of research vas done under the aegis of Academia Sinica. Since the Cultural Revolution there has been a great deal of decentralization. Some
of the institutes remaining under Academia Sinica control were transferred
to Shanghai, Nanking, or Tsinghai. Other activities became the
responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, which now has
the major responsibilities for agricultural activities. Both agricultural
research and education are the responsibility of the Bureau of Science and
Technology of this ministry. Agricultural research is conducted by the
provincial and municipal branches of the Academy of Science of Agriculture
and Forestry and by the colleges of agriculture in cooperation with com-
mune production brigades. At the pres- ent time, all agricultural colleges, with the exception of the Northwest Agricul- tural College at Sian, have
been moved to rural areas and are being reestab- lished. All of these
transfers and relo- cations appear to be designed to achieve a more intimate association of the scien- tist and the peasant to provide greater impetus
to the solution of problems of rural development. At the same time this
arrangement furthers the objective of limiting the development of a "white- collar" elitist class. Academia Sinica, the provincial and municipal
institutes, and the entire educational system is still in a "struggle,
criticize, reform" stage but with a growing degree of stability.
与农业有关的基础植物科学研究独立机构：中央研究院和科学技术局
隶属于农业和林业部。在早期，在中央研究院的主持下进行的这类研究。自从
文化大革命有很大的权力下放。一些由中央研究院控制的研究所
前往上海，南京或青海。其他活动成为农业和林业部的责任，现在
农业活动的主要责任。既农研究和教育是科学和技术局的责任
该部的技术。农业研究是由农业科学院省级和市级分院
与林业，农业院校以及公社生产大队合作。目前，除西安的西北农业学院外，所有农业学院都已搬迁到农村地区，并正在重新组建。所有这些转移和安置似乎都是为了使科学家和农民之间建立更紧密的联系，以更大的动力来解决农村发展问题。同时，这种安排进一步实现了限制“白领”精英阶层发展的目标。中国科学院，省级和市级研究机构以及整个教育体系仍处于“奋斗，批评，改革”阶段，但稳定程度不断提高。
The individual research institutes follow a common organizational pattern.
Each is headed by a scientist employed by the Ministry of Agriculture. In
addition each institute has a Revolutionary Committee composed of
representatives from the Party, administrators, research workers, and
peasants. Individual institutes may be highly specialized-for example,
dealing only with fruits or soils -or may be more broadly concerned with
agriculture of an area. In either event, specialized groups are concerned
with improvement, production, and protection aspects. Each institute is
associated with a number of commune production brigades of the area. From
one-third to one-half of the scientific personnel of an institute may be on assignment to these production brigades, on a rotation basis, for periods of a year or more. In addition, each staff member is required to spend 30 days per year in some public works project.
各个研究机构遵循共同的组织模式。每个人都由农业部雇用的一名科学家领导。此外，每个研究所都有一个革命委员会，由来自党，行政管理人员，研究人员和农民的代表组成。各个研究所可能是高度专业化的，例如仅处理水果或土壤，或者可能更广泛地涉及某个地区的农业。在这两种情况下，专业团体都关心改进，生产和保护方面。每个研究所都与该地区的许多公社生产大队有关。研究所的科学人员的三分之一到二分之一可以轮流分配给这些生产大队一年或更长时间。此外，每位工作人员每年必须在某些公共工程项目中花费30天。
The research scientists fell into one of three groups with respect to
academic training. One group, now near retirement age, received their
advanced training abroad, frequently in the United States or Japan. The
second group received their advanced training after 1949, usually in Russia. The third group, now constituting the bulk of the scientific staff,
received all of their training within the People's Republic of China. This
consisted largely of further training under supervision of staff members at one of the universities or agricultural colleges. There appeared to be no
organized program for advanced study comparable to the graduate programs in many other countries. This younger group has had only limited exposure to
agricultural developments in other areas of the world and has not
participated in international cooperative activities such as the
international rice or wheat evaluation trials. The current agricultural
research in China is more nearly self-generated and self-contained than is
true of any other area of the world.
在学术培训方面，研究科学家分为三类之一。现已接近退休年龄的一组人经常在美国或日本接受国外的高级培训。第二组通常在俄罗斯于1949年以后接受了高级培训。现在，构成科研人员大多数的第三组在中华人民共和国境内接受了所有培训。这主要包括在其中一所大学或农业学院的工作人员的监督下进行的进一步培训。似乎没有与许多其他国家的研究生课程相类似的高级学习课程。这个年轻的团体对世界其他地区农业发展的接触有限，没有参加国际合作活动，例如国际大米或小麦评估试验。当前，中国的农业研究比世界上任何其他地区更接近于自我产生和独立。
Organization of Communes
The association between the institutes and the production bridges provides
the mechanism for the extension of new varieties or production practices. To understand this relationship, it is necessary briefly to outline the
organization of the communes. At the lowest organizational level are the
production teams. A production team involves the households of one or more
villages, whose lands have been pooled and are operated as a single farm
unit. Each production team is governed by a revolutionary committee
including representatives of households, cadres, and others, who
collectively decide how assigned quotas shall be met, what crops will be
planted, what management system will be used, and so forth. Income is
dependent upon productivity achieved above the assigned quota; all
production other than market barter is sold to a State Cooperative Agency.
This system of operation encourages limitations on population growth since
the area farmed is static. Unless productivity increases proportionately
with an increase in manpower, per capita income must fall limitations on
population growth since the area farmed is static. Unless productivity
increases proportionately with an increase in manpower, per capita income
must fall.
研究所与生产桥梁之间的联系为扩展新品种或生产实践提供了机制。要了解这种关系，有必要简要概述公社的组织。在组织的最低层是生产团队。一个生产团队涉及一个或多个村庄的家庭，这些村庄的土地已被集中起来，并作为一个单独的农场单元进行经营。每个生产团队均由一个革命委员会管理，该委员会包括家庭，干部及其他人员的代表，由他们共同决定如何达到分配的配额，将种植何种农作物，将使用何种管理系统等等。收入取决于分配的配额以上所达到的生产率；除市场易货外，所有产品均出售给国家合作社。由于耕种面积是静态的，因此这种运作制度鼓励限制人口增长。除非生产率随人力的增加而按比例增加，否则人均收入必须限制人口增长，因为耕地面积是静态的。除非生产率随着人力的增加按比例增加，否则人均收入必须下降。
Very long article. To be continued
广州到麒麟
should be
广东到吉林
【 在 shaodian (有熊) 的大作中提到: 】
: Agriculture in China
: By G. F. Sprague
: Science 09 May 1975:
: Vol. 188, Issue 4188, pp. 549-555
: DOI: 10.1126/science.188.4188.549
: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/188/4188/549
: The Plant Studies Delegation visited China under the auspices of the
: Committee on Scholarly Exchanges with the People's Republic of China as
: guests of the China Association of Agriculture. The members of the U.S.
team
: , with their areas of special interest, are as follows:
: ...................
I know it. I just used google translation
【 在 springc (阿泉) 的大作中提到: 】
: 广州到麒麟
: should be
: 广东到吉林
: team